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盲目乐观的同义词篇一
《同义词》
盲目乐观的同义词篇二
《同义词》
盲目乐观的同义词篇三
《同义词》
同义词、近义词、易混淆词：从汉语到中介语的视角转移*
张 博
提要 在汉语作为第二语言教学需求的驱动下，对外汉语教学界超越对同义词意义关系的传统关注，将词语辨析的范围扩大到广义的近义词，并在近义词的框架下进行易混淆词的辨析。本文认为，这种做法难免冲犯近义词的界限，并使大量易混淆词受“近义”的规约而被悬搁。因此，对外汉语教学中的词语辨析不宜固守“同义”“近义”这类汉语本体研究提供的标尺，应当转换视角，基于中介语词语偏误的现实更有针对性地进行易混淆词辨析。易混淆词存在于第二语言学习者目的语使用和理解两个层面，既表现为口头表达和写作中的词语混用，也表现为阅读和听辨中的词语误解。本文根据词语混淆的影响因素归纳了汉语中介语易混淆词的主要类型，并提出研究易混淆词需要注意的几个问题。
关键词 同义词 近义词 易混淆词 词语辨析
词语辨析是对外汉语教学、学习词典编纂和教材词语注释及练习的重要内容。在什么范围内进行词语辨析？如何选定辨析的词对或词群？这是对外汉语教学界关注已久、但仍需认真探讨的重要问题。本文拟在考察对外汉语教学领域词语辨析研究进程的基础上，对此再作思考并提出一些建议。
一 “近义词”从“同义词”的笼罩下走出
在词汇学研究领域，许多论著和教材都将同义词区分为“等义词”和“近义词”，或者区分为“绝对同义词（absolute synonym）”和“相对同义词（relative synonym）”。等义词（或绝对同义词）意义完全相同，可在任何上下文中互相替换，因而没有辨析的必要。需要辨析的是“虽然意义相同，但并不完全相等，有种种细微的差别，应用上也不能任意替换”（胡裕树主编，1981：260）的近义词。近义词既是同义词的主体，又是“同义词”的次类，属于“广义上的同义词”（ 兹古斯塔，1968／1983：121），因此，辨析词典一般都以同义词为名，例如张志毅主编《简明同义词典》（1981）、刘叔新主编《现代汉语同义词词典》（1987）、商务印书馆辞书研究中心《新华同义词词典》（2003）等。可是，1983年北京语言学院刘淑娥、佟慧君、常敬宇、梅立崇诸先生编著的词典却径自命名为《近义词辨析》（以下简称“刘本”），此后，又有邓守信《汉英汉语近义词用法词典》（1994）、马燕华、庄莹《汉*②① 本课题得到教育部人文社科重点研究基地2002-2003年度重大项目（项目批准号：02JAZJD740006）经费资助，部分语例取自北京语言大学“汉语中介语语料库”及博士研究生萧频、萨仁其其格采集的印尼和蒙古学习者的汉语中介语语料，谨致谢忱。
语近义词词典》（2002，以下简称“马本”）、刘乃叔、敖桂华《近义词使用区别》（2003）、杨寄洲、贾永芬《1700对近义词语用法对比》（2005，以下简称“杨本”）等相继问世。这些以“近义词”为名的词典后出转精，各有千秋，但有一个共同之处，即都属于为第二语言学习者编纂的汉语学习词典（兼教学参考工具书）。
对外汉语学习词典的编纂者为何不再让“近义词”居于“同义词”的笼罩之下，而要让它另立门户？这与外国学生汉语词汇学习中存在的实际问题有关。郭志良（1988）指出：“汉族学生学习汉语，由于语感丰富，对意义上接近而并非同义的异义词一般不会发生词义上的混淆。外国学生情况就不同了。由于不同语言的语义系统不完全一致，因此他们学习汉语时对这类异义词则有可能分辨不清。特别是有的词群在另一种语言中是同译词。”例如：
英语同译词 阿语同译词 法语同译词 西语同译词
祖国——故乡 记号——征兆 事实——内容 设想——猜想 本质——自然 赞同——满足 消耗——消磨 逼近——约束 参观——访问 躺——就寝 憔悴——疲乏 正确——公平
这些词都算不上是同义词，可“操有关语言的学生都有可能用错”，有必要加以辨析。因此, “对外汉语教学词义辨析对象的范围不仅大于同义词典词义辨析对象的范围，也大于汉语教学词义辨析对象的范围。”（郭志良，1988）扩大范围的辨析对象不便再用“同义词”指称，因为同义词概括的是同一对象（孙常叙，1956：220），具有相同的义素（王寅，1993：325），是有严格界定的概念。相比之下，“近义”只要脱离了“同义”的框限，就是一个宽泛模糊的概念。意义基本相同的词是近义词，“意义有联系的词语，特别是那些有相同语素、相同词性的词，留学生非常容易用错”，也可以“作为近义词辨析的对象”。（刘缙，1997）这样一来，“近义词”已不再隶属于“同义词”，不再是“同义词”的次类，而是与“同义词”相平列的广义的“近义词”。
词语辨析的范围由同义词扩大到广义的近义词，表明对外汉语教学界已超越对同义词意义关系的传统关注，将观察的视域扩展到中介语的词语使用情况，力图结合学习者词语混用的实际进行词语辨析，这对于帮助学习者弄清相关词意义和用法上的异同，从而正确使用词语，提高词汇学习的效率，具有十分重要的意义。
二 需辨析的词语是否皆在“近义词”的疆域之内
走出同义词框限的“近义词”获得了极大的容纳空间，以往很多被同义词辨析词典拒之门外的词对或词群都得以进入近义词辨析词典，其中包括少量类义词，如“姓:名”、“上:中:里”（杨本），上下义词，如“夫人／太太／老婆／妻子:爱人”（马本）、“孩子:儿子”（杨本），更多的则是意义上有关联的词。从词性看，不再恪守同义词必须词性相同的规约，收
、“后取不少异词性词对或词群，如“恭敬形:尊敬动、形:尊重／敬重／敬佩／敬仰／崇敬动”
（刘本）、“的话助:如果／要是／假如／假设连”、“附来／以后／之后／今后／往后名:然后连”④③
近／旁边名:靠近动”（马本）、“便于动:以便连”、“不愧副:无愧动”（杨本）等；另外，一般同义词典极少收录或不收的虚词也大量进入近义词辨析词典。从语言单位来看，同义词词典
、“差别／差异／区别词:不同／不一所不取的词组得以和词比肩而立，如“百分之词组:成词”
、“念书／读书词:看书词组”（马本）、“不料词:没想到词组”、“好［不］容易词:很不容易样词组”
词组⑥⑤”（杨本）等。疆域如此之大的“近义词”是否可以承载外国学生混用的所有词语呢？答案并不十分乐观。
从近义词词典本身来看，个别词对并不是“近义词”。例如“杨本”所收“从:离”，“从”表示起点，“从……时间起／地点起／开始”的意思，而“离”表示两地之间的距离或两个时点之间的间隔时间；“练:炼”，“练”的意思是练习、训练，“炼”则指用加热等办法使物质纯净或坚韧，烧。在这两个词条下，编者都特别说明“意思和用法都不同”。既然意思不同，按理说是不宜收入“近义词”词典的。
从中介语的用词情况来看，不少外国学生经常混淆的词无法作为近义词辨析。例如，由于英语表示方式的介词by有时可以对译为“用”，如to pay by cheque（用支票支付），还可以对译为“乘（坐）”，如to travel by plane（乘／坐飞机旅行），因此，留学生往往分不清“乘（坐）”和“用”，下列句中的“用”都当换为“乘（坐）”：
（1）市民应该用公共汽车。 ．
（2）我出去的时候，平时用公共汽车。 ．
（3）别的方发（此为“方法”之误——笔者按）是用地tie和taxi .用地tie 跟用公共．．．
汽车一样，但是比较快，也是不太挤。用taxi是最方便，可是很贵。．⑦
几部近义词典都未收“乘（坐）:用”，因其不是近义词，无法在近义词的框架内安身。
由此看来，尽管广义的“近义词”有利于结合第二语言学习者的词汇偏误进行词语辨析，可是，不论近义的范围如何延展，都不可能完全覆盖对外汉语教学中需要辨析的词语，原因在于，“近义”与“同义”一样，反映的只是汉语词汇本身的语义关系，而不是第二语言学习者事实上难以区分的词语之间的各种关系。
对于第二语言学习者来说，习得一个词需要全面掌握其意义、读音、用法和书写形式等多种信息，需要跟意义相近、句法特征相同、同音及写法相似的其他词语区分开来，哪一点掌握不到位，都有可能与相关词语混淆。因此，尽管义近混淆最为普遍，但其他因素引发的词语混淆也时有发生。另外，二语学习者还会受母语词汇知识的影响而混淆某些形音义都非常疏离的汉语词。有鉴于此，对外汉语教学中的词语辨析应当放弃“同义”“近义”这类汉语本体研究提供的标尺，真正转换视角，基于中介语词语混用的现实进行词语辨析，所辨析的对象就是“易混淆词”（confusable words）。
三 易混淆词与同／近义词的关系及存在范围
国内外英语作为第二语言教学领域都有对易混淆词进行专门研究的成果。孙湘生、龚艳
霞《英语易混词汇大全》（1991）是国内出版较早、规模较大的易混淆词辨析专书。该书将我国英语学习者易混淆的词语分为4类：1）易混淆的同形异义词；2）词类转化上易混淆的词；3）拼写上易混淆的词；4）用法上易混淆的词。前三部分分类编排易混淆的词对或词群，共计2000余组；第四部分占全书篇幅的一半以上，共涉及同根易混词150多组，另有使用时易出错的常用词530个，编者通过英语释义、正误对照等方式对这些词语的意义和用法作了详细说明和分析。国外学者编纂的英语易混淆词辨析专书已被引进的是英国学者
Words（2000），该书“收集近400个词条，共计900余词项”Carpenter编著的 Confusable
（见该书“前言”）。顾明华据此将易混淆词分为五类：“（1）形似义异，如quite、quiet；
（2）形似义近而用法不同，如altogether、all together；（3）形似音同义异，如stationery、stationary；（4）形异义近，如baby、infant、child；（5）形或异或近、义近、用法不同，如after、afterwards、later等。”（见该书前附“译者的话”）这两部易混淆词辨析专书对英语学习者准确地理解词义、正确地使用词语都十分有用。
我国对外汉语教学领域也非常重视易混淆词辨析，比如刘淑娥等《近义词辨析》“前言”所述“选收原则”：“一是常用，二是考虑外国人学习汉语的难点，如‘躲与藏’、‘参观与访问’，中国人并不难于区分，但译成英文，前两个词都是hide，后两个词都是visit，外国人则容易混淆。这类词我们尽量选入。”鲁健骥、吕文华先生主编的《商务馆学汉语词典》（2006）特设橘黄色提示框，“对容易混用的近义词进行辨析”。但是，以往易混淆词辨析基本上是在近义词的框架下进行，这难免对近义词的界限有所冲犯，更不利的是，受“近义”的规约而使大量易混淆词不得不被悬搁。故此，张博（2005）提出，应“将以往一揽子处理的‘同（近）义词’大致区分为‘同义词’、‘近义词’和‘易混淆词’，目的是因词制宜，为不同类别的词语拟定切当可行的处理方式。”这里所说的“易混淆词”与“同义词”和“近义词”平列，是一个狭义的概念，“指语义关系较远或没有同（近）义关系而第二语言学习者却经常混用或误用的词。”该文还通过实例分析指出：“发现第二语言学习者的易混淆词和高频误用词，分析偏误的特点、倾向和致误原因，应当基于大规模中介语语料库的词汇调查。”在此动议下，萧频、张妍（2005）、萧频（2006）、张妍（2006）利用汉语中介语语料，对印尼学生和欧美学生部分动词性易混淆词进行了研究。
在中外学者易混淆词研究的启发下，笔者对易混淆词的性质和存在范围做进一步思考，形成两点新的认识。
其一，“易混淆词”与“同义词”“近义词”之间有交叉关系，而非包含关系或并列关系，因为它们是研究者站在不同的立场、以不同视角和不同标准归纳出来的词语类聚。具体而言，“同义词”“近义词”是站在语言本体的立场、着眼于词语的意义并根据其相同相近的程度归纳出来的词语类聚，“易混淆词”则是站在中介语的立场、着眼于目的语理解和使用中的词语混淆现象并根据混淆的普遍程度归纳出来的词语类聚。这两类词语之间互有交叉重合。有些同义／近义词是第二语言学习者容易混淆的词，有些则可能不存在混淆的问题，比如“受
伤：挂彩”、“熟悉：熟稔”这类使用频率差异较大的“同义／近义”词对，学习者在阅读和表达中一般不会遇到或用到那个低频词，因而也就不可能发生混淆；反之，有些易混淆词是同义／近义词，有些则可能不是，如前举“从：离”、“乘（坐）：用”等就不是近义词。以往对这两类词语类聚之间的交叉关系认识不足，往往将其处理为或视为包含关系。在近义词的框架下进行易混淆词辨析的做法，等于用近义词包含易混淆词；相反，认为易混淆词的范围大于“同义／近义”词，又等于将同义/近义词纳于易混淆词的范围之内。张博（2005）注意到同义／近义词不能完全包含第二语言学习者混用的词语，故排除“同（近）义关系”对易混淆词做狭义化界定，并将其与同义词、近义词平列，这种处理忽略了同义词、近义词与易混淆词分别是汉语和汉语中介语两种视角下的词语类聚，因而也是不妥当的。
其二，易混淆词存在于第二语言学习者目的语使用和理解两个层面。也就是说，易混淆词不仅体现为口头表达和写作中的词语混用，还体现为阅读和听辨中的词语误解。口头表达和写作中的易混淆词是指学习者普遍混用的词对或词聚，包括当用词和误用词两方，应当用甲的情况下常常误用了乙，甲和乙就是一对易混淆词。阅读和听辨中的易混淆词是指由某词与学习者予以另解或另认的词构成的词对，即本来是甲词，常被误解或误认为乙词，甲和乙就是一对易混淆词。例如，据钱旭菁（2005）报道，被试将“每当回忆起童年那段往事”中的“往事”理解为“故事”；再如，外国学生常将“日前”认作“目前”，将“统一”（如“课本由学校统一买”）听成“同意”，类似的词对也是易混淆词。使用层面的易混淆词是显性的，．．
理解层面的易混淆词是隐性的。以往对易混淆词的研究大多局限于使用层面，这是很不够的。从数量来说，理解层面的词语混淆现象更多更普遍，因为学习者在听话和阅读时接收的词语的数量总是大于应用型（或曰积极型）词汇的数量，为了理解说话人和文本的意思，学习者必须对生词的意义进行猜测，这必然会使听话和阅读理解时发生词义误解或词语误认的机率相对较高；而学习者在语言表达中能够调动的词汇有限，加之经常使用回避策略，不少听和读的过程中误解误认的词语没能暴露或很少暴露出来。另外，从词语误用和误解的关系来看，误解一般会导致误用，是误用的根源，比如外国学生把“往事”理解为“故事”，在中介语中，确有该用“往事”而用“故事”的情况：
（4）他只有采用了一个下午来作为三十年的【故事】。
（5）过今年中我最忘不了的【故事】是春节和元宵节的时候跟同学们过节日。
（6）那时候我们也去看一个地方对中国人很不可能忘记。那个地方叫七三一，进入里
面可以看到一前的故事，很难过。 ．．
而语言表达中的误用，未必以阅读中的误解或误认为基础，比如，尽管“用出租车”这样的误用相当普遍，但外国学生一般不会误解“乘（坐）出租车”或“用出租车运书”之类的表达。由此看来，研究易混淆词不能只关注外国学生的词语使用，还应通过阅读课和听力课教学或相关语言测试发现更多的隐性易混淆词。
四 汉语中介语易混淆词的主要类型
⑧
盲目乐观的同义词篇四
《同义词》
盲目乐观的同义词篇五
《同义词》
盲目乐观的同义词篇六
《同义词精选版》
95. 可能的
Potential: We are aware of the potential problems and have taken every precaution.
Conceivable: It is just conceivable that a single survivor might be found.
96. 迅速的
Prompt: Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter.
Fleet: Winson is fleet of foot.
Expeditious: We will give you’re an expeditious repose.
97. 渴望的
Yearn: The wife yearned for her husband’s return.
Crave: He craves for the recognition of the society.
Hanker: Winson hankered to revisit his childhood home.
98. （使）恐惧、（使）震惊
Appall: The public were appalled when they heard the president had been shot.
Dismay: We were dismayed by the violence of his reaction.
Horrify: Everyone was horrified by the news.
99. 夸奖
Compliment: Winson complimented Becky on her beautiful new dress.
Laud: The small child was lauded for his achievement in piano.
Extol: The man was extolled as a hero.
100. 宽广的
Extensive: An extensive desert covers much of northern Africa.
Spacious: The interior of the house is spacious and bright.
101. 使困扰，骚扰（参见词霸）
Harass: Pirates harassed the villages along the coast.
Hound: Reporters hounded the celebrity for an interview.
Badger: Friends kept phoning and writing, badgering me to go back.
102. 浪费的
Lavish: The waiter led us into a lavish living room that offers a sweeping view of the Bay. Extravagant: Winson seems to have had no extravagant habit.
Prodigal: The new couple was prodigal in their expenditures.
103. 乐观的
Upbeat: The players seemed upbeat about their chances of winning.
Bullish: The team was in a bullish mood before the game started.
104. 类似的
Comparable: There is no basketball player comparable to Jordan.
Akin: Pity is often akin to love.
105. 理性的
Sensible: The sensible thing is to leave them alone.
Sane: It was not the act of a sane person.
106. 描述
Depict: The novel depicts the hero as a cynical opportunist.
Delineate: Our objectives need to be precisely delineated.
107. 例证
Exemplify: The teacher exemplified how to use the word.
Illustrate: The story illustrated her true generosity very clearly.
108. 寒冷的
Chill: The chill homeless huddled around the campfire.
Frigid: With the furnace out of order, the classroom was frigid.
109. 旅行
Excursion: Our excursion to Boston seemed like a dream.
Voyage: Winson made a voyage across the Asian continent.
110. （使）迷惑、（使）为难
Bewilder: The silence from Winson had hurt and bewildered her.
Baffle: The odd noises and flashes of light in the empty house completely baffled Winson. Perplex: Winson was perplexed by Winson’s refusal to tell where he was going.
111. 迷人的
Enchanting: Winson was an absolutely enchanting child.
Engaging: Our math teacher was an engaging person.
Winning: I love Winson’s winning smile.
112. 秘密的
Covert: What they have done is a covert threat to our future development.
Stealthy: The scout made a stealthy approach to the enemy position.
113. 明白
Grasp: Winson found it difficult to grasp the meaning of the whole passage.
Apprehend: The expert apprehended it at a glance.
114. 明显的
Observable: There was no observable change in three days here.
Visible: The meadows are hardly visible from the house.
Distinct: There was a distinct note of annoyance in Mary’s reply.
Discernible: A small boat was clearly discernible in the middle of the lake.
Plain: The message was short, but the meaning was plain enough.
115. 明智的
Judicious: Winson’s choice was usually judicious.
Sage: The teacher gave me a sage advice about my study.
116. 庞大的、巨大的
Colossal: The Titanic was a colossal ship.
Immense: Winson made an immense amount of money in his business.
Enormous: No small company like this could afford such enormous expenses.
Stupendous: The mayor has done a stupendous job of fighting crimes.
Gigantic: The new airplane looked like a gigantic bird.
117. 平静的
Composed: She talked in a composed voice to the reporter about her terrible ordeal.
Sober: I will continue this conversation with you tomorrow, when you are sober.
118. 评价、估计
Appraise: The diamond was appraised ate ten thousand dollars.
Assess: They are assessing Winson’s house.
119. 起源、发生
Originate: The bullfight originated in Spain.
Initiate: They wanted to initiate a discussion on economics.
120. 疲惫的
Exhausted: They are totally exhausted and virtually asleep.
Weary: Winson collapsed onto his bed, too weary to get changed.
Wear out: Winson was worn out after the swimming marathon.
121. 评论
Comment: Everyone commented on Winson’s new hat.
Expound: Winson continued to expound his views on economics and politics.
122. 破坏
Eradicate: The government made great effort to eradicate superstition.
Raze: The air strike razed the city to the ground.
123. 普遍存在的
Omnipresent: During those years everybody was filled with the omnipresent fear of war. Widespread: Winson’s proposals have attracted widespread support.
Widespread: Winson’s proposals have attracted widespread support.
Worldwide: Hardware-damaging virus is a worldwide problem.
124. 欺骗
Deceive: The seller deceived his employer by manipulating the accounts of the business. Mislead: She was misled by the sign into going to the wrong way.
Delude: Winson had deluded himself into believing that it would all come right in the end. Beguile: I was beguiled by Winson’s flattery into trusting him.
125. 奇怪的
Bizarre: The game was also notable for the bizarre behavior of the team’s manager.
Abnormal: The little child has an abnormal fear of strangers.
126. 强调
Accentuate: His shaven head accentuates his large round face.
Underline: The decision to keep Winson is hospital for a second night underlines the seriousness of his injury.
127. 强迫
Compel: Duty compelled the soldiers to volunteer for the mission.
Oblige: They were obliged to leave their homeland.
Constrain: They constrained us to instant action.
128. 强制性的
Required: Chinese was taught as a separate and required course here.
Requisite: Decision is a requisite quality to a boss.
Compulsory: A school outfit is no longer compulsory now.
130. 佩服、赞赏
Esteem: I esteem the man for his honesty.
Revere: Today he is still revered as the father of the nation.
Worship: Most people enjoy going to church and worshipping God.
131. 勤奋的
Industrious: A willing, industrious man always strives to succeed.
Assiduous: The statistics were the result of five years’ assiduous research.
132. 轻视
Scorn: People always scorn me because I have a single parent.
Disdain: The poor man was rather strange and often disdained other people’s offer of help. 133. 情感、情绪
Affection: Winson’s affections tend to be variable.
Sentiment: There is no room for sentiment in negotiation.
134. 情况，立场
Circumstance: They will investigate the circumstances surrounding the child’s death.
Posture: The scandal was an awkward posture for the entire family.
135. 除去
Eliminate: Many infectious diseases have been eliminated many years ago.
Exterminate: We had to exterminate rats to prevent the spread of plague.
136. 贫困的
Impoverished: Winson’s parents lived on a remote and impoverished island.
Penniless: Winson’s parents arrived in the country as penniless immigrants.
137. 限制、禁止
Bar: Father bars smoking on the dinner table.
Restrict: There is talk of raising the admission requirements to restrict the number of students on campus.
138. 取消
Cancel: Winson cancelled her trip to the south as she felt ill.
Call off: Why was the meeting called off?
139. 明确的、完全的
Positive: I am positive I have seen him.
Decided: We cannot deny the decided improvement on the security system.
140. 忍受
Withstand: Explorers have to withstand hardships.
Endure: Winson endured solitude sand torture for months at a time.
Weather: The company succeeded in weathering a financial crisis.
141. 认出、识别
Discern: That kid is too young to discern right and wrong.
Identify: He fainted after identifying the dead woman as his wife.
142. 任意的
Random: The man fired a few random shots.
Casual: Our long friendship began with a casual meeting at a party.
143. 散播
Broadcast: Winson soon broadcasted the news to all his friends.
Disseminate: The man spent his life disseminating the Winson.
Scatter: The searchers scattered all over the countryside looking for the missing girl.
145. 神秘的
Enigmatic: Little is known about this solitary and enigmatic writer.
Cryptic: There is a cryptic smile on the old man’s face.
Arcane: These arcane customs are attractive to the tourists.
146. 时代
Epoch: Newton’s theory marked a new epoch in physics.
Era: The era of space travel has started.
147.真的，实际的
Authentic: This is an authentic painting by Winson.
Genuine: This ring was made of genuine silver unmixed with base metal.
Veritable: The salesman is a veritable fox.
148. 减轻、缓和
Alleviate: Heat often alleviates pain.
Mitigate: The government made plans to mitigate the disruptive effects of slum living. Assuage: Winson did all he could to assuage her fears.
149. 使适应
Adjust: Astronauts in flight must adjust to weightlessness.
Acclimate: It took me a long time to acclimate myself to living in the countryside. 150. 使用
Employ: Two methods can be employed to solve this problem.
Utilize: Sometimes, this room is utilized for training purposes.
Trade on: You should not trade on your friend’s generosity.
盲目乐观的同义词篇七
《同义词》
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